World War I

World War I, or the “Great War,” transformed the military as we know it. It was a time of great technological advancement, along with the invention of trench warfare. England entered the war full of pride and with the idea of fighting to uphold “morality;” however, many involved in the war quickly became disillusioned and cynical of the effort. The general public also had a skewed view of the war as the media rallied around the likes of Rupert Brooke—who idealized the fight (although he never saw battle himself)—and the contrasting steady increase of the number of people reported dead.

With poems like “The Great Lover” and “The Soldier,” Brooke quickly became idealized by the English population. Even though, as I mentioned earlier, he never saw combat himself (he died of blood poisoning on the trip overseas), he is known as one of the greatest War poets. His works contrast greatly with those of Sassoon, Own, and Rosenberg, whose poetry harshly described the conditions of the war. In Brooke’s “The Soldier,” he immortalizes a soldier, giving him a respectable death and burial:

“If I should die, think only this of me:

That there’s some corner of a foreign field

That is forever England. There shall be

In the rich earth a richer dust concealed” (page 1098, lines 1-4).

Brooke reveres the soldier as a man of England—not stating how he died, or who buried him, but only revering that the soldier died as an English man with English morality.

This greatly contrasts with Rosenberg’s “Dead Man Dump.” In his poem, Rosenberg more accurately describes who the dead were treated: “The wheels lurched over sprawled dead / But pained them not, though their bones crunched” (page 1104, lines 7-8). Here the death are not buried peacefully, not ever set aside with dignity, but rather are walked upon and rolled over with the men’s vehicles. Rosenberg also frankly describes what happened to those who die before receiving proper medical treatment:

“A man’s brains splattered on

A stretcher-bear’s face;

His shook shoulders slipped their load,

But when they bent to look again

The drowning soul was sunk too deep

For human tenderness.

They left this dead with the older dead,

Stretched at the cross roads” (page 1105, lines 55-62).

Rosenberg does not leave out any gory detail in describing the death and subsequent dumping of this soldier. As before, this greatly contrasts with Brooke’s gentle poem, immortalizing the cause of the war.

While eventually the public were disillusioned of the war, this took well until the end of the war to occur. It also left a general distrust of the so-called morality and the government which would last and secure the emergence of Modernism.

George Bernard Shaw

George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion is a prime example of Shaw’s own personal philosophy. Shaw was an adamant support of women’s rights and frequently wrote in ways that portrayed women as the “social Visionary” (page 1004). Pygmalion is no exception; Eliza Doolittle, after having completed the six-month experiment explains to Higgins that “I want a little kindness. I know I’m a common ignorant girl, and you a book-learned gentleman; but I’m not dirt under your feet. What I done…what I did was not for the dresses and the taxis: I did it because we were pleasant together and I come—came—to care for you; not to want you to make love to me, and not forgetting the difference between us, but more friendly like” (page 1062). Women at this time were still not “liberated”, and still under the lawful control of men.

The sequel also demonstrates this want of equality of Liza’s when Shaw explains her choice to marry Freddy: “He is nicely dressed, is treated by the Colonel as an equal, loves her unaffectedly, and is not her master, not ever likely to dominate her in spite of his advantage of social standing” (page 1065). This passage again asserts Shaw’s philosophy of women’s rights, as he believed that everyone—regardless of race or sex—should be treated equally.

His belief in equality is also demonstrated by Pickering’s characterization; Shaw portrays him as a gentle, understanding man who was generous and gentile. This character was not out of a desire to impress, but rather out of a general belief in the idea; this is demonstrated (again) by Liza: “I now you are generous to everybody with money. But it was from you that I learnt really nice manners; and that is what makes one a lady, isn’t it?” and that he “thought and felt about me as if I were something better than a scullery-maid; though of course I know you would have been just the same to a scullery-maid if she had been let into the drawing room” (pages 1056 and 1057). These statements by Liza indicate Pickering’s general agreeableness to everyone, regardless of class and sex, as Shaw wished to see in contemporary society.

These passages demonstrate Shaw’s ability to infuse political and philosophical beliefs into his art, and not create “art for art’s sake,” but rather art that is “fully engaged in ides [that have] its own mission nothing less than changing the world” (page 1003).

Oscar Wilde: Wild Man

Oscar Wilde may go down in history as one of the most interesting characters to ever live. A pure aesthete, he frequently remarked on the absurdity in taking life seriously, and fervently did not believe in creating art in order to analyze humanity. Rather, he firmly believed in creating "poetic passion, the desire of beauty, the love of art for art's sake" (page 828).

The preface to The Picture of Dorian Gray perfectly catches this belief. After having been accused of the novel fostering immoral ideas, he published the next edition with this added preface. The preface includes epigraphs (of which Wilde was famous for) that clearly reveal his feelings of art being used as a mode of moral or political assertion. "All art is quite useless," he declares at the end of the preface, as clear proof (from the author himself) that one is not to read into any of his works (page 847).

Wilde embodied the aesthetic movement, as his preface shows. He claims that "to reveal art and conceal the artist is the art's aim;" this is in contrast to previous movements, such as the Romantics, that hoped to reveal some new insight into Humanity through their works. Also demonstrating the aesthetic movement is when he claims that "All art is at once surface and symbol. Those who go beneath the surface do so at their own peril. Those who read the symbol do so at their own peril;" once again, Wilde makes the assertion that those in the Aesthetic movement do not create art in order to give a deeper meaning into life, but merely for entertainment.

He also explains that "there is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book," clearly in reference to those who claimed that The Picture of Dorian Gray encouraged immorality in those who had (or will) read it (page 846). In the preface, Wilde makes no attempt to hide or veil his contempt for those who accused him of writing and creating something that had meaning behind it. This is quite reflective of his personality, as even though it was illegal to have homosexual relations in England at this time, he made no attempt to hide his romances; this flagrant attitude would eventually be his downfall.

Personally, I think it is very appropriate that Mr. Wilde's last name is Wild.

Leda and the Swan

In W. B. Yeats's poem, Leda and the Swan, Yeats describes a horrific event which ultimately leads to horrific consequences. First off, there are many ironic points in this poem. For instance, that Zeus is personified as a swan in his rape of Leda; swans are typically seen as gentle creatures that symbolize beauty.

Another ironic point is, after the rape, the birth of Helen eventually brought about the Trojan War. Not only did he commit the horrific act of raping Leda, he ultimately caused the Trojan War which also marks the fall out of mythology, and the demise of Zeus himself (literarily, of course).

Yeats starts his poem starkly, without introduction: "A sudden blow: the great wings beating still/Above the staggering girl" (page 1125, lines 1-2). He continues in the stark, brazen tone with word choices of "terrified," "glory," and "beating." (lines 5, 6, and 8).

Yeats then goes on to reference the Trojan War ("The broken wall, the burning roof and tower / And Agamemnon dead" (pages 1125-1126, lines 10-11), the ultimate result of this act. He also questions "Did she put on his knowledge with his power / before the indifferent beak could let her drop?" (page 1126, lines 13-14); he questions whether Leda could have known that while his specific act is horrifying to her, it would lead to horrible consequences for many?

This poem leaves me questioning everyday life; could, like Zeus's one act of raping Leda, lead to an equally catastrophic event for not only one, but thousands? And could the opposite happen? Could a horrible, disastrous event for one lead to happiness and health for thousands?

Joyce: Master of Prose

As the footnote (#1 on page 1165) indicates, the beginning of James Joyce's Ulysses was written in a style meant to mimic that of 19th century sentimental women's fiction. This fiction was typically overly descriptive, yet leaves out shameful, inappropriate details (such as Gerty's lame foot).

For example, Joyce, in describing the opening scene, exclaims: "Many a time and oft were they wont to come there to that favorite nook to have a cosy chat beside the sparkling waves and discuss matters feminine" (page 1165). One can see some of Joyce's mockery with phrases such as "nook" and"cosy chat." This style continues in his description of the three girls; Cissy Caffrey is described as "a truerhearted lass never drew the breath of life, always with a laugh in her gipsylike eyes and a frolicsome word on her cherryripe red lips, a girl lovable in the extreme" (page 1166).

After about halfway through the chapter, Joyce switches points of view from Gerty to Leopold Bloom, the gentlemen who had been watching the three girls. At this point, the sentimental fiction style also does not continue, but rather one of a more free association-type, as we follow Blooms thoughts.

This change--along with the feminine-modeled style--is utilized by Joyce to contrast the different ways in which men and women are physically attracted to each other. Throughout the first half of the chapter, Gerty described the man on the beach (Bloom) in terms that she found attractive in a husband. She imagined him "embrac[ing] her gently, like a real man, crushing her soft body to him, and lover her, his ownest girlie, for herself alone" and saw him as her "dreamhusband" (page 1174). Gerty also claims that "even if he had been himself a sinner, a wicked man, she cared not" (1174); this contrasts with, when Bloom discovers Gerty is lame, he claims "a defect is ten times worse in a woman" and "glad [he] didn't know" before (page 1180). This suggests the different viewpoints of men and women (at least the stereotypical ones) that women are more attracted to those who they view as suitable husbands, while men are more attracted to those they see as physically attractive.

Thomas Hardy, "Hap" vs. "The Darkling Thrush"

Thomas Hardy's Hap and The Darkling Thrush give one opposing final feelings, and opposing points of view on life. Hap leaves one with the sense that the world is in chaos, with no hope and no reprise. The Darkling Thrush on the other hand, leaves one feeling that while we may not always be able to see it, hope still remains.

Hardy begins his poem with a tone of hopelessness:

"If but some vengeful god would call to me

From up the sky, and laugh: "Thou suffering thing,

Know that thy sorrow is my ecstasy,

That thy love's loss is my hate's profiting!" (page 1073, lines 1-4).

While he addresses the fact that there is no such vengeful deity in line 9 ("But not so."), he also suggests it with his choice in starting the poem with "if." He also sets a tone of hopelessness with words like "suffering thing," "sorrow," "hate profiting." (lines 1-4).

He also continues this hopelessness with:

"How arrives it joy lies slain,

And why unblooms the best hope ever sown?

--Crass Casualty obstructs the sung and rain,

And dicing Time for gladness casts a moan. . .

These purblind Doomsters had as readily strown

Blisses about my pilgrimage as pain" (page 1073, lines 9-15).

He continues the hopelessness by continuing his word choice in words like "slain," "obstructs," and "moan." He also leaves the reader with a sense of hopelessness in his final two lines ("These purblind Doomsters had as readily strown/Blisses about my pilgrimage as pain"), suggesting that happiness is not more common or more special to whatever deity is out there.

The Darkling Thrush, on the other hand, leaves the reader with a sense that hope is out there. Hardy describes a dismal scene,

"When Frost was spectre-gray,

And Winter's dregs made desolate

The weakening eye of day.

The tangled bine-stems scored the sky

Like strings of broken lyers,

And all mankind that haunted nigh

Had sought their household fires." (page 1074, lines 2-8).

And initially gives again a sense of hopelessness with words like "desolate" and "broken." And continues the initial tone with words like "corpse," "death-lament," "fervourless" (page 1075, lines 10, 12, and 16).

However, the last two stanzas envoke a sense of hope, when he describes a song he hears from a bird. One that "had chosen thus to fling his soul/ Upon the growing gloom" (lines 23-24). The last few lines especially serve to evoke a sense of hope; or at least that hope is out there.

"That I could think there trembled though

His happy good-night air

Some blessed Hope, whereof he knew

And I was unaware." (lines 29-32).

Hopkins's Struggle

Throughout his life, Hopkins struggled to find his audience in the world of poetry. He even commented on this to his friend, Robert Bridges, and admitted this his poetry "'errs on the side of oddness'" (page 774). However, Hopkins's poetry became immensely popular after his death. Thou Art Indeed Just, Lord, one of his final poems, reflects this frustration and resulting depression that haunted him; in this poem, he asserts that while God is just, why He would seemingly prevent Hopkins from happiness.

"Why do sinners' ways prospers? and why must
Disappointment all I endeavor end?" (page 778, lines 3-4)

Here, Hopkins blatantly asks why all his endeavors are unsuccessful, suggesting Hopkins's quest to find and--in his own words--"convert" his audience (page 774). He follows this question with an assertion that

"Wert thou my enemy, O thou my friend,
How wouldst thou worse, I wonder, than thou dost
Defeat, thwart me?" (page 778, lines 5-7).

Again, Hopkins asserts that there is no other way to "thwart" him other than preventing him from his writings. Hopkins also gives a wonderful description of what he views as his trials in writing,

"See, banks and brakes
Now, leaved how thick! laced they are again
With fretty chervil, look, and fresh wind shakes
Them" (page 778, lines 9-12).

This excerpt here gives a wonderful image of thickets (brakes), full of leaves, twisted and coiled into an insurmountable tangle. This again reflects and suggests Hopkins struggle to find a poetic audience. Hopkins finishes his poem with what I think is the most convincing argument that this poem reflects his personal struggle:

"Birds build--but not I build; no, but strain,
Time's eunuch, and not breed one work that wakes.
Mine, O thou lord of life, send my roots rain."

In this passage, Hopkins asserts that, unlike the birds, he does not build--he does not and has not produced a work that awakens his audience. This, unfortunately for the frustrated Hopkins, would not occur until after his death.

Thou Art Indeed Just, Lord also reflects his religiousness, with a prayer-like tone (his word choice in "thou," "just," "sinners," etc.) and style to the poem. He begins the poem with the confirmation that God is just, and that while Hopkins is not questioning God's will, does pose the question as to why he cannot find what he seeks (a poetic audience). He ends the poem with the request that God send him inspiration.